| Md. Wasim Aktar* | | | | Bank, 2006b). Dutch authorities, who were |
| | | | alerted about the finding, tested samples |
| Pesticide Residue Laboratory, Department of | | | | from the 28 containers of Indian grapes then |
| Agricultural Chemicals, | | | | in Rotterdam port and found that about 75% of |
| Bidhan Chandra Krishi | | | | the samples exceed the MRLs for methomyl and |
| Viswavidyalaya, Mohanpur-741252, Nadia, West | | | | or acephate.7 The problem was reported on the |
| Bengal, India | | | | EU Rapid Alert system, causing not only |
| | | | significant short term economic losses, but |
| 1. Introduction | | | | also considerable longer term reputation |
| | | | damage. The price of Indian grapes dropped |
| Rising incomes and urbanization, an expanding | | | | sharply, and the Indian grape shippers |
| domestic consumer base concerned about food | | | | incurred losses, either in Dutch sales or by |
| quality and safety, and rapidly growing | | | | diverting the shipments to other markets. |
| agricultural exports have been important | | | | |
| drivers for the increased attention to food | | | | Spice Exports. India is the world's largest |
| safety in India. But the development of | | | | consumer and producer of spices and is also a |
| effective food safety systems is hampered by | | | | significant exporter of spices (Jaffee, |
| a number of factors, including: restrictive | | | | 2005). In 2004/05, India's spice exports |
| government marketing regulations, weak policy | | | | totaled US$399 million. India, however, has |
| and regulatory framework for food safety, | | | | encountered a number of food safety problems |
| inadequate enforcement of existing standards, | | | | in its spice exports including high pesticide |
| a multiplicity of government agencies | | | | residues, aflatoxin contamination and the use |
| involved, weak market infrastructure and | | | | of prohibited food colorants. In the |
| agricultural support services. The small farm | | | | mid-nineties, Indian dry chili exports faced |
| structure further limits farmer capacity to | | | | several rejections including rejections in |
| meet increasing domestic and export food | | | | Spain due to pesticide residue in excess of |
| safety and SPS requirements. Addressing food | | | | permissible MRLs, and in the United States |
| safety concerns in India will require | | | | because residues of quinalphos, a pesticide |
| adoption of appropriate legislation, | | | | not registered in the United States (Jaffee, |
| strengthening capacity to enforce rules, | | | | 2005). Between 1998 and 2000, Indian dry |
| promoting adoption of good agricultural, | | | | chili exports also faced rejection in |
| manufacturing and hygiene practices, greater | | | | Germany, Italy, Spain and the U.K. due to the |
| collective action, and some targeted | | | | presence of aflatoxin.8 More recently, |
| investments. Implementing these actions will | | | | exports of chili and curry powder faced |
| require joint efforts by the government and | | | | problems due to the use of the prohibited red |
| the private sector. | | | | dye Sudan 1 (Jaffee, 2005). In February 2005, |
| | | | a massive recall of some 600 food products |
| Developing countries are paying increased | | | | took place in the UK because of the detection |
| attention to food safety, because of growing | | | | of Sudan 1 in Worcester sauce. This was the |
| recognition of its potential impact on public | | | | largest ever food recall in the U.K. and it |
| health, food security, and trade | | | | affected all major retailers as well as large |
| competitiveness. Increasing scientific | | | | numbers of food manufacturers and food |
| understanding of the public health | | | | service companies, as the Worcester Sauces |
| consequences of unsafe food, amplified by the | | | | had been used in the preparation of a large |
| rapid global transmission of information | | | | number of different products. It is estimated |
| regarding the public health threats | | | | that this recall, and associated expenses, |
| associated with food-borne and zoonotic | | | | cost the U.K. and other European food |
| diseases (e.g. E. coli and salmonella, | | | | manufacturers some 200 million Euros (Jaffee, |
| bovine-spongiform encephalopathy (BSE), | | | | 2005). The source of the Sudan 1 dye in the |
| severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARs) and | | | | Worcester sauce was traced to chili powder |
| H5N1 avian flu) through various forms of | | | | imported from India in 2002. |
| media and the internet has heightened | | | | |
| consumer awareness about food safety risks to | | | | Fish and Fish Product Exports. Fish and fish |
| new levels globally (Lindsay 1997, Unnevehr | | | | products are one of India's |
| 2003, Buzby and Unnevehr 2003, Kafersteing | | | | largestagricultural export earners, totaling |
| 2003, Ewen et al. 2006, Bramhmbatt 2005). | | | | US$1.3 billion in 2004/05. Over the years, |
| Increased understanding of the impact of | | | | India hasencountered several food safety |
| mycotoxins, which can contaminate dietary | | | | problems with its fish and fish product |
| staples such wheat, maize, barley and | | | | exports. Most prominent, in 1997, the |
| peanuts, has further raised food security and | | | | European Commission found the industry to be |
| public health concerns in many developing | | | | non-compliant in maintaining hygiene |
| countries (Dohlman 2003, Bhat and Vasanthi | | | | standards in fish processing plants. In May |
| 2003, Unnevehr 2003). | | | | 1997 the European Commission banned Indian |
| | | | exports of fresh crustaceans and cephalopods |
| As developing countries seek to expand | | | | and imposed border testing for Salmonella and |
| agricultural exports especially to | | | | Vibrio spp. for frozen products (Henson, |
| OECDcountries, many are receiving a wake-up | | | | Saqib and Rajasena, 2005). Because of |
| call on the challenges of meeting both | | | | continued detection of salmonella, all |
| government and private sanitary and | | | | exports of fish and fishery products to the |
| phyto-sanitary (SPS) standards in export | | | | EU from India were banned in 1997. While |
| markets (Otsuki et al. 2001, Henson 2003, | | | | India has for the most part been able to |
| Unnevehr 2003, World Bank 2005a). Private | | | | address the hygiene-related problems plaguing |
| standards or supplier protocols have grown in | | | | its export of fishery products in the late |
| prominence over the past decade as a means to | | | | nineties, Indian exports are now under |
| further ensure compliance with official | | | | scrutiny because of problems related to |
| regulations, to fill perceived gaps in such | | | | antibiotic residues and bacterial inhibitors |
| regulations, and/or to facilitate the | | | | (antibiotics, preservatives and chlorine) |
| differentiation of company or industry | | | | (Henson, Saqib and Rajasena, 2005). It is |
| products from those of competitors. Trends in | | | | widely acknowledged that in the future, heavy |
| private standards increasingly tend to blend | | | | metals and other contaminants could be an |
| food safety and quality management concerns | | | | emerging issue particularly because of the |
| (i.e. the recent creation of ISO 22000), or | | | | increased attention to heavy metals in the |
| to have protocols which combine food safety, | | | | EU. Surveillance of fisheries products for |
| environmental, and social (child labor, labor | | | | heavy metals has already begun in the U.K. |
| conditions, animal welfare) parameters | | | | |
| (Willems et al. 2005, World Bank 2005). At | | | | Although India has been able to broadly |
| the same time, increasing globalization of | | | | comply with food safety requirements for each |
| trade introduces greater risks of | | | | of the export commodities mentioned above, it |
| cross-border transfer offood-borne illnesses. | | | | continues to face problems across a range of |
| Recent cases of disease episodes in the | | | | agro-food exports. Evidence of continuing |
| United States resulting fromimported food | | | | trouble is clearly apparent from Import |
| produce, such as cyclospora from raspberries, | | | | Refusal Reports issued each month by the |
| hepatitis A from strawberries and salmonella | | | | USFDA for food and drug imports into the |
| from cantaloupe (Calvin 2003), illustrate to | | | | United States. Most recently, in both April |
| developing countries the potential food | | | | and May 2006, India had one of the highest |
| safety challenges that can arise in a more | | | | rejections among all countries exporting to |
| globalized market. | | | | the USA; India faced 176 rejections in May, |
| | | | 2006 and 211 rejections in April, 2006.9 |
| Weaknesses in food safety systems can have a | | | | While a significant number of the 176 |
| high cost to society and the global economy. | | | | rejections were issued for drugs and |
| The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates | | | | cosmetics, the grounds for rejection among |
| that 2.2 million people worldwide die from | | | | the various food items included salmonella |
| diarrheal diseases caused by a host of | | | | and/or filth in raw peeled shrimp, prepared |
| bacterial, viral and parasitic organisms, | | | | Indian breads (paratha, roti), basmati rice, |
| which are spread by contaminated water (WHO | | | | sesame seeds, pepper, coriander and chili |
| 2006a). In India, it is estimated that 20% of | | | | powder; pesticide residues in lentils; |
| deaths among children under five are caused | | | | failure to declare the color additive FD & C |
| by diarrheal disease (WHO 2006b). The SARs | | | | Yellow No. 5 in banana chips; and unsafe |
| outbreak in 2003 in East Asia is estimated to | | | | coloring in cream biscuits. The number of |
| have caused an immediate economic loss of | | | | rejections and the range of problems reveal |
| about 2% of the Region's GDP in the second | | | | extensive safety problems in Indian food |
| quarter of that year, even though only 800 | | | | products. It is also reasonable to assume |
| people died from the disease (Brahmbatt | | | | that the extent of the problems faced by |
| 2005).1 The Lowy Institute for International | | | | domestic consumers is far more serious as |
| Policy (2006) estimates that a mild global | | | | there many more micro, small and medium |
| outbreak of the avian flu can cost the world | | | | enterprises that cater to domestic consumers |
| 1.4 million lives and close to 0.8% of GDP | | | | and generally pay less attention to food |
| (US$330 billion) in lost economic output. At | | | | safety issues. By contrast, exporters are |
| the same time, country reactions to protect | | | | likely to be more well-established and larger |
| its citizens from food safety risks can also | | | | firms with better technology and relatively |
| have large consequences for exporting | | | | more cognizant about food safety concerns. |
| countries. Otsuki et al (2001) examined the | | | | |
| projected impact of the EU's new harmonized | | | | 7. Challenges to Improve Food Safety in India |
| aflatoxin standard on the value of trade | | | | |
| flows to 15 European countries from 9 African | | | | Improving food safety in India, whether for |
| countries and found that it could decrease | | | | the domestic market or for export trade, is |
| African exports by 64% (US$670 million). | | | | hampered by a number of structural, policy, |
| | | | institutional, technical and cultural |
| Food safety concerns are getting widespread | | | | barriers. |
| attention in India. The country's rural | | | | |
| development strategy, for which a key element | | | | Policy and Regulatory Environment. A number |
| is the promotion of increased agricultural | | | | of policies and regulations governing |
| exports as a means to foster rural growth and | | | | agricultural marketing and food processing |
| poverty reduction, is coming up against | | | | complicate the implementation of food safety |
| tightening food safety and SPS standards in | | | | measures by the government and by the private |
| prospective markets (World Bank 2006a, | | | | sector. Two critical marketing regulations |
| 2006b). From a domestic perspective, the | | | | are the State level Agricultural Produce |
| large national market of 1.2 billion people | | | | Marketing (Development and Regulation) Acts |
| is undergoing rapid change. Increasing | | | | and the Small Scale Industry Reservation |
| incomes, a growing middle class, increased | | | | Policy. Almost all states in India have an |
| urbanization and literacy, and a population | | | | Agricultural Produce Marketing (APM) Act, |
| highly tuned to international trends fueled | | | | which gives state governments the sole |
| by the information technology boom are | | | | authority to establish and manage wholesale |
| creating a large consumer base giving | | | | markets.10 The Act, adopted by most states in |
| increasing value to food quality and safety. | | | | the 1960s and 1970s, prescribes the setting |
| Improving food safety systems, to meet | | | | up of a network of state controlled |
| domestic and export requirements, however, | | | | "regulated markets" or mandis and the |
| face a number of policy, regulatory, | | | | establishment of Market Committees to operate |
| infrastructural and institutional obstacles. | | | | each. All "notified" agricultural commodities |
| | | | grown in areas surrounding the market are |
| 2. OBJECTIVES | | | | required by law to be sold only through these |
| | | | markets, with the number of notified |
| (i) To review the main drivers for the | | | | commodities varying by state and market. |
| increased priority to addressing food safety | | | | Implementation of the Act and its enforcement |
| risks in India in both the export and | | | | vary considerably by state. In 2005, there |
| domestic markets, (ii)To examine the nature | | | | were nearly 8,000 regulated markets in the |
| and effectiveness of government and private | | | | whole country.11 The requirement that all |
| responses to the food safety challenges, with | | | | agricultural commodities be channeled through |
| special focus on high value agriculture; | | | | the regulated markets not only increases |
| (iii)To identify the constraints to more | | | | transactions costs, but is also a major |
| effective responses; (iv) To examine the | | | | obstacle to preserving produce quality and |
| implications for policy; v) To review food | | | | traceability. In 2003, the GOI formulated a |
| safety with special relation to Pesticides; | | | | model Agricultural Produce Market Act for |
| and vi) To discuss briefly about the food | | | | state governments to adopt, which removes the |
| safety from consumer point of view. | | | | restrictions on farmer direct sales and |
| | | | permits entities outside of government to |
| 3. Types of Food Safety Risks | | | | establish and operate wholesale markets. To |
| | | | date only 10 of the 28 states and Union |
| Food safety risks, as they relate to human | | | | Territories have adopted the model Act.12 |
| health, arise from of a number of factors. | | | | |
| These include: (i) microbial pathogens | | | | The Small Scale Industry (SSI) Reservation |
| (bacteria, viruses, parasites, fungi and | | | | restricts the processing of certain |
| their toxins); (ii) pesticide residues, food | | | | commodities to the small scale sector. |
| additives, livestock drugs and growth | | | | Although the list of commodities subject to |
| hormones; (iii) environmental toxins such as | | | | this restriction has been reduced |
| heavy metals (e.g. lead and mercury); (iv) | | | | significantly during the last decade, several |
| persistent organic pollutants (e.g. dioxins); | | | | processed agricultural products are still |
| and (v) zoonotic diseases (e.g.Avian flu, | | | | subject to SSI reservation, such as rapeseed, |
| Japanese encephalitis, tuberculosis) (Buzby | | | | mustard and ground nut oil,13 bread, pastry, |
| and Unnevehr 2003, Ewen et al. 2004).2 The | | | | pickles and chutneys, and hard boiled sugar |
| health risks associated with these agents | | | | candy (Department of Small Scale Industries |
| impact the whole food supply chain, starting | | | | 2006). The SSI reservation imposes |
| from input supply to the farm to the consumer | | | | constraints on enterprises' ability to |
| table (Figure 1). | | | | undertake the necessary investments (e.g. |
| | | | HACCP) and certifications required to meet |
| Figure 1 Food Supply Chain: Potential Sources | | | | the domestic and international food safety |
| of Food Safety Hazards | | | | and SPS requirements.14 |
| | | | |
| Common use of pesticides in modern farming | | | | There is a complex web of laws governing the |
| inevitably leaves some residues on food | | | | processed food sector which complicate |
| crops. | | | | implementation of food safety measures. These |
| | | | laws are enforced by 8 different ministries. |
| Potential food safety hazards at HOME can be | | | | Some of the most critical are: Prevention of |
| divided into three categories: | | | | Food Adulteration Act 1954 implemented by the |
| | | | Ministry of Health and Family Welfare; Milk |
| 1. Biological | | | | and Milk Products Order 1992 and Agricultural |
| | | | Produce Grading and Marking Act 1937 |
| 2. Chemical | | | | implemented by the Ministry of Agriculture; |
| | | | the Essential Commodities Act 1955, Standards |
| 3. Physical | | | | of Weights and Measures Act 1976, Consumer |
| | | | Protection Act 1986, and Bureau of Indian |
| While all the above type of hazards are | | | | Standards Act 1986 implemented by the |
| important from viewpoint of prevention, the | | | | Ministry of Food, Consumer Affairs and Public |
| focus here will be on the microbiological | | | | Distribution; the Fruit Products Order 1955 |
| hazards and in that on foodborne bacteria, | | | | implemented by the Ministry of Food |
| which can lead to illness if the food is | | | | Processing Industries; import and export |
| mishandled, particularly for those more at | | | | regulations implemented by the Ministry of |
| risk -- the very young, the elderly and the | | | | Commerce; Trade in Endangered Species Act |
| immuno-compromised. | | | | implemented by the Ministry of Forest and |
| | | | Environment; Atomic Energy Act 1962/Control |
| Certain processes or handling practices by | | | | of Irradiation of Food Rule 1991 implemented |
| consumers in the home have been identified as | | | | by the Ministry of Science and Technology; |
| being essential or critical in preventing | | | | and Infant Milk Substitutes, Feed Bottles and |
| foodborne illness. These practices, which | | | | Infant Foods (Regulation of Production, |
| prevent or control the "meals" microbial | | | | Supply and Distribution) Act 1992 implemented |
| contamination associated with foodborne | | | | by the Ministry of Human Resource Development |
| illness, are under the direct control of the | | | | (Patnaik 2005). |
| consumer, from food acquisition through | | | | |
| disposal. | | | | These laws also authorize several agencies to |
| | | | lay down standards for food products: (i) |
| They are purchasing, storing, | | | | Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) of the |
| pre-preparation, cooking, serving, and | | | | Ministry of Food, Consumer Affairs and Public |
| handling leftovers. Failure to take | | | | distribution under the BIS Act, (ii) Ministry |
| appropriate action at these critical points | | | | of Food Processing Industry under the Fruit |
| could result in foodborne illness. | | | | Products Order, (iii) Ministry of Agriculture |
| | | | under "Ag Mark" and the FPO, (iv) Ministry of |
| 4. Pesticides and Food Safety | | | | Health and Family Welfare (MOHFW) under the |
| | | | PFA Act; (v) Export Inspection Council under |
| Fruits, vegetables and cereal crops treated | | | | the Export-Import Policy, and (vi) the |
| with pesticides are perceived by some as a | | | | Defense Ministry for their own purchases. |
| health risk, and this belief along with | | | | |
| affordability, and time pressures may all | | | | These laws and associated regulations in some |
| play a role in limiting consumption of plant | | | | cases prescribe contradictory or differing |
| foods, such as cereal grains, fruit and | | | | standards. For example, while the Fruit |
| vegetable consumption of consumers in Asia. | | | | Products Order (FPO) allows the use of |
| The World Health Organisation (WHO), the | | | | artificial sweeteners in fruit products, the |
| World Cancer Research Fund (WCRF) and many | | | | Prevention of Food Adulteration (PFA) Act |
| other national and inter-governmental | | | | bans it. Mandatory declaration labels |
| agencies recommend that adults consume at | | | | required by the PFA differ from those of the |
| least 400g of fruit and vegetables per day | | | | Packaged Commodity Regulation Rules (1977) |
| and 25-30 grammes of dietary fibre per day, | | | | under the Standard Weights and Measures Act. |
| but analysis of current dietary patterns | | | | The emulsifier and stabilizers permitted for |
| around the world indicate that many consumer | | | | use in jams and chutneys under the PFA differ |
| are not achieving these dietary goals, | | | | from those allowed under the FPO. |
| particularly those who are less affluent. | | | | |
| AFIC's Short Briefing on Pesticides, Food | | | | In 1998, the GOI began the process of |
| Safety and Health is intended to provide a | | | | rationalizing the legal and regulatory |
| science-based factual overview of the issue, | | | | framework for food and food processing. The |
| to enable consumers to make better informed | | | | Prime Minister's Council on Trade and |
| choice about their diet, in particular fruit, | | | | Industry established a Task Force on Food and |
| vegetables and grains consumption, and allay | | | | Agro-Industries Management Policy to |
| unwarranted anxieties and concerns. | | | | recommend options for rationalizing the |
| | | | various policies and regulations. The outcome |
| Definition of Pesticide: The Food and | | | | was a new Food Safety and Standards Bill, |
| Agriculture Organisation (FAO) defines a | | | | which was submitted to Parliament in August |
| pesticide as 'any substance or mixture of | | | | 2005 and is awaiting approval. The Bill aims |
| substances intended for preventing, | | | | to consolidate the laws relating to food. The |
| destroying, attracting, repelling, or | | | | key provisions of Bill include: (i) the |
| controlling any pest including unwanted | | | | repeal of a number of Acts and Orders;15 (ii) |
| species of plants or animals during the | | | | the establishment of a Food Safety and |
| production, storage, transport, distribution, | | | | Standards Authority of India; (iii) |
| and processing of food, agricultural | | | | definition of the standards for food |
| commodities, or animal feeds or which may be | | | | additives, contaminants, genetically modified |
| administered to animals for the control of | | | | and organic foods, packaging and labeling, |
| ectoparasites' | | | | and food imports; (iii) accreditation of |
| | | | laboratories, research institutions and food |
| Natural Toxins: Substances that are capable | | | | safety auditors; (iv) licensing and |
| of causing cancer are virtually everywhere, | | | | registration of food business and setting |
| even in natural compounds. The FDA estimates | | | | penalties for offenses; and (v) establishment |
| that the intake of carcinogens from man-made | | | | of a Food Safety Adjudication Tribunal |
| pesticide residues is extremely small | | | | (Ministry of Food Processing Industries |
| compared to carcinogenic residues that plants | | | | 2005). Approval of the Bill will be an |
| produce naturally. | | | | important milestone in strengthening food |
| | | | safety systems in India. |
| According to Bruce Ames, a professor of | | | | |
| molecular biology and biochemistry at the | | | | There are a large number of government |
| University of California, more than 99.99 | | | | agencies involved in agricultural marketing |
| percent of the pesticides Americans ingest | | | | activities, more broadly or with respect to |
| are "nature's pesticides" or "natural toxins" | | | | specific commodities, which complicates |
| (Hotchkiss, 1992; Moore, 1989). | | | | effective implementation of a coherent food |
| | | | safety strategy for the country. As in the |
| Natural toxins are present in all plants and | | | | case of the soft drink contamination, the |
| such food products as beans, lettuce, apple | | | | multiple laws and agencies added to the |
| juice, wine, black pepper, spinach, peanut | | | | confusion. The BIS was charged with setting |
| butter and many others. Of the known natural | | | | the standards for pesticides in soft drinks, |
| toxins, which concentrate in parts per | | | | while the MOHFW is charged with setting the |
| thousand versus parts per billion in | | | | pesticide standards for bottled water. |
| synthetic pesticides, none has been shown to | | | | |
| cause cancer (Hotchkiss, 1992; Moore, 1989). | | | | Smallholder Agriculture. The current |
| | | | structure of the farm sector in India |
| Reasons of pesticide residues in food | | | | constrains farmer capacity to meet domestic |
| | | | and international food safety standards. |
| Pesticide residues may be present in food | | | | Farming in India is dominated by small |
| because of the following reasons: | | | | farmers - the average farm size in 1990/00 |
| | | | was 1.8 ha (NABARD 2002). Most farmers face |
| 1) Direct use of pesticides on food crops; | | | | credit constraints (World Bank 2004), and |
| | | | literacy rates are low.16 These constraints |
| 2) Animal feeding on pesticide treated feed; | | | | impose limits on the number of farmers |
| | | | capable to adopt more sophisticated farm |
| 3) Environmental contamination | | | | practices and undertake the necessary |
| | | | investments (e.g. land improvements, |
| Pesticide Use on the Farm: Many of today's | | | | obtaining necessary certifications, cold |
| food producers are taking an Integrated Pest | | | | storage) to meet more stringent food quality |
| Management (IPM) approach to preventing, | | | | and safety requirements. They increase the |
| reducing or eliminating pest problems. | | | | cost of transacting business and monitoring |
| Growers and processors must make complicated | | | | compliance with food safety standards. |
| decisions prior to planting, during the | | | | Stringent land policies, e.g. land ceilings |
| growing season, and during postharvest | | | | and restrictions on land rental, limit |
| handling. Scientific IPM strategies give the | | | | possibilities for greater land amalgamation |
| grower economic incentives for sustaining | | | | (World Bank 2006c). International experience |
| long-term crop protection with minimal | | | | indicates, however, that farm size |
| disruption to the environment. The | | | | constraints may be overcome through |
| agricultural community typically will use | | | | innovative interventions such as organizing |
| pesticides judiciously as part of the IPM | | | | farmers into producer groups, establishing |
| strategy whenever proven alternatives are not | | | | collection centers (by supermarkets and |
| available for pest control. Growers are | | | | exporters), using contract farming |
| hiring professional crop consultants with | | | | arrangements, and by creating public-private |
| increasing frequency for advice on | | | | partnerships to assist farmers in a variety |
| maintaining or increasing production through | | | | of ways, including help in obtaining the |
| the utilization of IPM programs structured | | | | capital required to make on-farm improvements |
| toward their specific agronomic situations. | | | | and other investments (e.g. grading or |
| | | | cooling facilities), developing and improving |
| Integrated pest management: It is an | | | | farming skills through joint extension |
| ecological approach to pest management in | | | | provision, and assistance in acquiring the |
| which all available control techniques are | | | | required national and international |
| consolidated into a unified program so that | | | | certifications (Berdegué et al. 2003, |
| pest populations can be managed in such a | | | | Boselie et al. 2003, Dries et al 2004, |
| manner that economic damage is avoided and | | | | Reardon and Swinnen 2004, Reardon and Timmer |
| adverse side effects are minimized. Practices | | | | 2005a, 2005b). |
| used as a part of this management philosophy | | | | |
| include the following: 1) destruction of crop | | | | In order to address various food safety |
| debris, 2) having pests feed and concentrate | | | | concerns in both the spices and fresh and |
| on trap crops, 3) crop rotation, 4) | | | | processed fruit and vegetable sectors, some |
| selectivity of planting and harvest dates, 5) | | | | exporters initiated contract farming |
| soil test analysis for crop nutrient needs, | | | | operations or "vendor screening" programs. |
| 6) planting crop species adapted for local | | | | One industry that has been especially |
| conditions, 7) using genetically improved | | | | successful in establishing contract farming |
| crop varieties with resistance to specific | | | | arrangements and meeting stringent food |
| pests, 8) using biological control, 9) | | | | safety and quality standards is the pickled |
| predicting pest outbreaks with computers, 10) | | | | gherkin industry. The industry, consisting of |
| pheromones for trapping pests, 11) scouting | | | | some 42 companies and nearly 50,000 |
| and monitoring for pests, 12) economic | | | | smallholder outgrowers, is concentrated in |
| thresholds as guides to pest control, 13) | | | | Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu. |
| better timing and application of pesticides, | | | | The leading gherkin exporting companies each |
| 14) use of biological insecticides, 15) | | | | have several thousand farmers under contract. |
| improved pesticide application efficiency, | | | | The companies provide intensive oversight and |
| 16) adapting promising technology, including | | | | maintain extensive records of farmer |
| the use of infrared scanners, satellite | | | | practices, especially related to pesticide |
| photos, gene-splicing biotechnology, and new | | | | use. At least one company began the process |
| pesticide delivery systems that incorporate | | | | of getting outgrowers certified under |
| farm-specific information on tractor mounted | | | | EurepGAP (World Bank 2006b). Contract farming |
| computers. | | | | has worked relatively well in the case of |
| | | | gherkins as almost the entire production from |
| Pesticide Limits and Regulation: Approval for | | | | India is exported and there is no local |
| use of any pesticide in a country is subject | | | | market. Hence contract enforcement has not |
| to its safety evaluation. Safety levels for | | | | been a major challenge as in the case of |
| any pesticide are calculated over a number of | | | | other commodities where the export intensity |
| formal assessments. The Codex Alimentarius | | | | is much lower and the majority of production |
| Commission is an international body which | | | | is consumed domestically. |
| sets international guidelines on many | | | | |
| elements of food safety, including pesticides | | | | Until recently, contract farming was illegal |
| residues on food. These guidelines are not | | | | in India as per the provisions of the APM |
| mandatory, but many countries in Asia use | | | | Act. The only way entrepreneurs can legally |
| these guidelines, sometimes with additional | | | | enter into contract farming with farmers is |
| scientific data determined by their national | | | | to obtain a special waiver from the APM Act |
| regulatory agencies to establish limits on | | | | from the State Government. The new model APM |
| use and also acceptable residue levels at | | | | Act provides the legal framework and |
| point of sale. | | | | guidelines for contract farming. The |
| | | | provisions in the model Act allow contract |
| Acceptable Daily Intake: One of the most | | | | buyers to directly purchase commodities from |
| important tools in the safety evaluation of | | | | farmers under individual contracts or from |
| pesticide use on food crops is the | | | | farmers' markets. It also allows the direct |
| calculation of what is an Acceptable Daily | | | | sale of farm produce at the farmers' fields |
| Intake (ADI). The ADI for any given pesticide | | | | without having them routed through regulated |
| is a measure of the quantity of a particular | | | | markets. Adoption of the model Act by state |
| chemical in food that can be consumed daily | | | | governments will therefore facilitate not |
| over a lifetime without any known risk to | | | | only more efficient marketing, but also |
| health. It is expressed in relation to | | | | improved food safety and the adoption of |
| bodyweight. | | | | improved agricultural practices. |
| | | | |
| ADI is derived by first conducting diet | | | | Weak Extension Systems. The public |
| trials on laboratory animals and observing | | | | agricultural extension systems at the state |
| the maximum level of pesticide that can be | | | | level are very weak and have not effectively |
| consumed by the animal with no observable | | | | caught up to the changing needs of farmers |
| adverse effect on health. This level | | | | and the market (World Bank 2005b). In view of |
| expressed as percentage of body weight is | | | | the GOI's earlier concentration on food |
| known as the No Observable Adverse Effect | | | | self-sufficiency, the state-level Department |
| Level (NOAEL or NOEL), The investigations | | | | of Agriculture (DoA) extension systems |
| include checks for birth defects, cancer, | | | | generally focused on cereals, particularly |
| reproductive changes, damage to the nervous | | | | rice and wheat, with an emphasis on the |
| system, harm to organs such as the kidney or | | | | transfer of improved varieties and management |
| liver, and many other measurable health | | | | practices. The weak coordination between the |
| indicators. | | | | state DoAs and the other line departments |
| | | | (e.g. Departments of Irrigation, |
| A safe level for human consumption is | | | | Horticulture, Livestock, Marketing, etc) and |
| estimated by dividing the NOAEL on humans by | | | | the limited staff capacity beyond the |
| an uncertainty factor (usually 100) to allow | | | | Department of Agriculture also often |
| for the possibility that humans may more | | | | translated to limited extension activities |
| sensitive than the animals used for testing | | | | beyond cereals, limiting its impact on |
| and also to account for possible variation in | | | | agricultural and market diversification |
| sensitivity to the pesticide between human | | | | trends. The weak coordination with research |
| individuals, for example adults and children. | | | | at the central level further increased the |
| These results in an ADI for humans which is | | | | difficulty of ensuring effective |
| 100 times lower than the NOAEL consumption | | | | research-extension-farmer linkages at the |
| rate established from trials on laboratory | | | | state level. In many states, tight fiscal |
| animals. | | | | constraints contributed to the breakdown of |
| | | | the state extension machinery (Hanumantha Rao |
| Acute Reference Dose: Safety evaluation of | | | | 2003). Private extension provision (fee for |
| all pesticides also requires an estimate of | | | | service) is emerging. There are an increasing |
| the acute refrence dose (ARfD). The ARfD is | | | | number of input suppliers, traders, contract |
| an estimate of the amount of a substance in | | | | buyers, supermarkets, and exporters which |
| food or drinking water expressed as | | | | provide extension services to farmers as an |
| percentage of body weight, that can be | | | | integral part of their trading arrangements |
| consumed over a short period of time, usually | | | | (World Bank 2005b). However in the national |
| one meal or one day, without any known effect | | | | context, private extension remains limited. |
| on health. This figure is also expressed as a | | | | |
| percentage of body weight. | | | | The findings of a World Bank agricultural |
| | | | marketing survey, covering 1,579 farmers |
| Maximum Residue Levels: A maximum reside | | | | producing high value crops (tomatoes, |
| levels (MRL) is the maximum permissible | | | | potatoes, mangoes, maize and tumeric) in four |
| quantity of pesticide that may still be | | | | states in India (Orissa, Tamil Nadu, Uttar |
| present on the crop at point of sale. It is | | | | Pradesh, and Maharashtra) conducted during |
| derived from an assessment of the residues | | | | February to May 2005, confirm the limited |
| found when the crop is treated according to | | | | effectiveness of the national extension |
| good agricultural practices. The MRL is the | | | | system. Farmers primarily depended on |
| maximum concentration of a pesticide residue | | | | personal observation or on other farmers for |
| that is legally permitted in, or on, a food | | | | information about crop prices, post harvest |
| commodity, and is set by national governments | | | | practices, irrigation, fertilizer and |
| if the approval is given for the use of the | | | | pesticide use (Table 2). |
| pesticide on specified crops. MRLs are set to | | | | |
| determine legal trading limit, and are not an | | | | Although food safety concerns have not been a |
| indicator of risk to health. MRLs are set at | | | | major focus in the extension program, it is |
| levels which would result in consumption of | | | | partly addressed through the increased |
| any residue at a level substantially lower | | | | Ministry of Agriculture (MoA) priority to |
| than the ADI or the ARfD for the pesticide, | | | | integrated pest management (IPM). MoA |
| and any pesticide whose MRL could result in | | | | established the National Center for |
| dietary intake which might exceed the ADI or | | | | Integrated Pest Management in1988 to develop |
| ARfD would not receive approval. | | | | and promote IPM technologies. Notably there |
| | | | has been a decline in total pesticide |
| Pesticide Residue Monitoring: Under FFDCA, | | | | consumption in India from 75,000 mt in 1990 |
| the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and | | | | 91 to 48,400 mt in 2003/03 (Directorate of |
| USDA share responsibility for monitoring | | | | Plant Protection and Quarantine 2006). |
| levels of pesticide residues on foods. FDA | | | | |
| enforces pesticide tolerances for all | | | | Poor Infrastructure and Services in the |
| domestically produced food shipped in | | | | Marketing System. Reducing food safety risks |
| interstate commerce and in imported foods, | | | | from the farm to domestic and export markets |
| except for meat, poultry and some egg | | | | is constrained by inadequate infrastructure |
| products, which are monitored by USDA. Many | | | | and facilities, particularly at the wholesale |
| agriculturally-intensive states such as | | | | markets. The World Bank Agricultural |
| California and Florida also conduct extensive | | | | Marketing Survey also collected information |
| pesticide residue monitoring programs. FDA | | | | on the operations of 78 wholesale markets in |
| uses three approaches for pesticide residue | | | | the four states. The survey found that the |
| monitoring: 1) incidence/level monitoring, 2) | | | | infrastructure and facilities in these |
| regulatory monitoring, and 3) Total Diet | | | | markets are limited and rudimentary. Overall, |
| Study (FDA, 1994). | | | | Maharashtra and UP had slightly better |
| | | | infrastructure than the other two states. |
| Total Diet Studies: To assess potential | | | | About 83% of markets had covered shops, but |
| health problems from contaminants, both | | | | only 18% had paved roads within the market |
| natural and man-made in the food supply, the | | | | and 51% had public toilets. Access to |
| WHO recommends total diet studies (TDS) as | | | | warehouses is limited, except in Maharashtra |
| the one of the most cost-effective means for | | | | (85%). Less than 40% of markets had a drying |
| assuring that people are not exposed to | | | | area and no markets in Orissa or Uttar |
| unsafe levels of toxic chemicals through | | | | Pradesh had cold storage facilities (compared |
| food. TDS provides an additional tool to | | | | to 5% in Tamil Nadu and 20% in Maharashtra). |
| assess whether or not any pesticides may be | | | | |
| present in the diet at levels which might | | | | Table 2: Farmer Sources of Information. |
| pose a risk to health. A TDS is conducted by | | | | |
| purchasing through standard retail outlets a | | | | Waste management and pest control in the |
| typical selection of foods commonly consumed | | | | markets are very weak. Officials working in |
| in the country or region. The 'basket' of | | | | the wholesale markets were asked how the |
| foods is processed and prepared as if for | | | | spoiled produce and waste products were |
| normal consumption and then analysed in the | | | | disposed off. Fifty-four percent responded |
| laboratory to measure total levels of the | | | | that market employees or contracted firms |
| substances of interest, for example | | | | handled garbage disposal and waste |
| pesticides. Drinking water and water used in | | | | management; 29% reported that they were just |
| cooking are also included in the assessments. | | | | left to rot in the market, while 13% reported |
| The TDS provides a measure of the average | | | | that they were left for the animals to eat. |
| amount of the pesticide consumed by different | | | | Market officials were also asked about the |
| age/sex groups living in a country. See box | | | | pest control measures they undertake. |
| for an example of an actual TDS and results | | | | Fifty-nine percent indicated that no |
| for estimate of pesticide consumption. | | | | particular control measure for rats and |
| | | | insects are implemented in their market, 32% |
| Risk Calculation: Risk = exposure x | | | | indicated it was up to the individual shop |
| toxicity. Risk of harm from a chemical | | | | owners to take care of their rat problems. |
| depends on both the level of exposure to the | | | | Only 8% reported the market management or |
| chemical and on the toxicity of the chemical | | | | association or a subcontracted firm took care |
| (Chaisson et al., 1991). Therefore, to | | | | of rat problems. Reducing food safety risks |
| quantify potential risks from consuming | | | | will require significant public and private |
| minute quantities of a particular chemical | | | | investments to upgrade the market |
| residue in food, scientists consider the | | | | infrastructure and services. For regulated |
| toxicity of the chemical, the residue content | | | | markets, this will also require improving the |
| of foods and the amounts of these foods eaten | | | | operational and fiduciary management to |
| by population subgroups. Population subgroups | | | | ensure that more resources are re-invested |
| such as infants, children, women, women of | | | | back into the markets. |
| child-bearing age and ethnic subgroups may be | | | | |
| considered in risk assessments in addition to | | | | Cultural Issues. Religious beliefs further |
| the total population. The groups considered | | | | constrain the kinds of food safety measures |
| depend on the toxicologic characteristics of | | | | that could be adopted in India. The sacred |
| a particular chemical. Risk assessments that | | | | value attached to cattle imposes limits on |
| consider regional and seasonal variations | | | | disease control measures to address food |
| also are performed. | | | | safety and public health (BSE, foot and mouth |
| | | | disease), such as culling to limit disease |
| Exposure = residue concentration in food x | | | | spread or to create disease free zones. |
| amount of food consumed. Potential exposure | | | | |
| to a chemical in a specific food is assessed | | | | Inadequate grades and standards for the |
| by multiplying the residue concentrations in | | | | domestic market and poor enforcement. The |
| food times the amount of food consumed by | | | | Directorate of Marketing & Inspection under |
| each person in the population. This exposure | | | | the Department of Agriculture and Cooperation |
| is expressed as milligrams of residue per | | | | is responsible for enforcing and implementing |
| kilogram of body weight per day (mg/kg BW | | | | the Agricultural Produce (Grading and |
| day). Potential dietary exposure to a | | | | Marking) Act. Its mandate includes promoting |
| chemical is assessed by adding together | | | | standardization and grading of agricultural |
| residue intakes from all foods. Different | | | | products. Grades and standards have been |
| assumptions regarding residue concentrations | | | | prescribed for 164 commodities under the APM |
| in food may be used to assess exposure. A | | | | Act for domestic trade, for export trade and |
| worst-case exposure scenario may be | | | | for grading at the producer's level. The |
| calculated using tolerance levels for | | | | AGMARK grades are primarily voluntary grades |
| pesticides in food. This exposure assessment | | | | covering aspects such as size, variety, |
| is the theoretical maximum residue | | | | weight, color, and moisture levels. For |
| contribution. Exposure may also be calculated | | | | certain items they also cover parameters such |
| using anticipated residue levels (Chaisson et | | | | acceptable levels of organic and inorganic |
| al., 1991; California Agriculture,1994). | | | | foreign matter (in pulses, for example) and |
| | | | other chemical properties such as specific |
| 5. Food Safety and the Indian Domestic Market | | | | gravity for essential oils. Different grades |
| | | | and standards are laid out under AGMARK for |
| Increasing incomes, urbanization, and | | | | domestic consumption versus exports. |
| literacy, improved infrastructure and closer | | | | |
| ties to global trends, especially during the | | | | The Directorate provides third party |
| last decade, are driving changes in consumer | | | | certification under the AGMARK quality |
| demand and preferences in India. Sustained | | | | certification scheme. The 'AGMARK' seal is |
| economic growth (6.0% per year in real terms | | | | supposed to ensure quality and safety. Any |
| from 1990/91 to 2003/04) resulted in GDP per | | | | consumer, trader or manufacturer can have |
| capita increasing by about 70%, from about | | | | products tested at one of the 23 regional |
| US$315 in 1990 to US$538 in 2004 (constant | | | | AGMARK laboratories for designated |
| 2000 dollars). National poverty rates | | | | commodities. Typically, testing is only |
| (headcount) declined from 38.9% (Central | | | | carried out for adulteration prone |
| Statistical Organization 2002) in 1987/88 to | | | | commodities such as oils, ghee, whole and |
| 28.5% in 1999/00 (Deaton and Dreze 2002).3 | | | | ground spices, honey, and whole and milled |
| The middle class, which now accounts for | | | | food grains. Blended edible vegetable oils |
| about 15% of the 1.2 billion people in India, | | | | and fat spreads are compulsorily required to |
| is the fastest growing income group and is a | | | | be certified under AGMARK. The Prevention of |
| major force shaping the diet revolution that | | | | Food Adulteration Act also sets standards for |
| is occurring (Landes and Gulati 2003). | | | | food products including aspects such as |
| | | | permissible food colorings, preservatives, |
| Figure 2: Diversification on Food Consumption | | | | pesticide residues, packaging and labeling. |
| Expenditures | | | | As illustrated by the bottled water and soft |
| | | | drink pesticide residue incidents, inadequate |
| These structural changes are reshaping | | | | standards and weak enforcement remain a |
| consumer demand. The Indian food consumption | | | | problem. |
| basket is diversifying away from cereals | | | | |
| towards higher value and more perishable | | | | The grades specified under AGMARK and |
| products, such as fruits and vegetables, | | | | standards as laid out in the PFA are designed |
| dairy, meat and fish (Figure 2). Increasing | | | | to facilitate trade as well as ensure food |
| female participation in the work force and | | | | safety. The food safety standards under the |
| higher disposable incomes to spend on | | | | PFA in general need to be aligned with |
| non-home cooked foods are driving growth in | | | | international standards. However there are |
| demand for prepared and semi-prepared foods, | | | | many commodities that are not grown or |
| and thus the growth of the processed food | | | | consumed outside of India. For these |
| industries (Pingali and Khwaja 2004). These | | | | commodities it may not be possible to align |
| trends bring increased attention to safety | | | | domestic standards with international |
| concerns in the handling, processing and | | | | standards because there are no established |
| marketing of foods. | | | | international standards. In these instances |
| | | | it is important for research to be conducted |
| In addition, growing consumer preference for | | | | in India to set appropriate standards for the |
| shopping convenience, increased exposure to | | | | domestic market. |
| the media (TV, cable and the internet) and | | | | |
| ownership of durables such as refrigerators | | | | Lack of pro-activity in addressing |
| and cars are fostering the growth of modern | | | | food-safety issues. Domestic food safety |
| retailing (i.e. supermarkets and | | | | scares and the more notable food-safety |
| hypermarkets), which in turn demand greater | | | | problems faced by Indian agro-exports, reveal |
| efficiency and food quality and safety | | | | the overall absence of any pro-activity in |
| standards in the supply chain Mukherjee and | | | | addressing food safety concerns in India. |
| Patel 2005, Chenggapa, et al 2005). | | | | Several factors contribute to this. In the |
| | | | case of exports, many if not most of the |
| Increased vigilance by NGOs, consumer groups, | | | | emerging SPS and international standards are |
| and local research institutes is also raising | | | | widely viewed as not scientifically based and |
| awareness and spurring action among consumers | | | | as representing unfair "barriers to trade" |
| and policy makers to address food safety | | | | (World Bank, 2006b). These measures are |
| risks. Findings of high levels of pesticides | | | | viewed as efforts to protect foreign farmers |
| in bottled water and soft drinks in 2003 by | | | | or processors from competition, or are being |
| the Centre for Science and Environment (CSE), | | | | fueled by unreasonable consumer fears in high |
| an NGO, shook the country and forced the | | | | income countries and improved technologies |
| Government of India (GOI) to take swift | | | | for detecting hazards. Consequently, the |
| action (Mathur et al 2003, CSE 2004). The CSE | | | | approach of the government and private sector |
| tested 30 bottled water brands from the major | | | | has been to try to negotiate away the |
| cities of Delhi and Mumbai in Maharashtra and | | | | problems with trading partners and, failing |
| found that all except one contained pesticide | | | | that, addressing the various measures in |
| residues. | | | | international standard-setting or dispute |
| | | | flora. As a consequence, insufficient |
| Figure 3: Pesticide Residues in Soft Drinks | | | | attention is devoted to monitoring the |
| in India, 2003 | | | | requirements of official and private |
| | | | standards, interpreting their implications |
| The Delhi brands on average contained | | | | for Indian agriculture and using current and |
| pesticide residues 36.4 times the maximum | | | | anticipated requirements as catalysts to |
| pesticide residues stipulated by the European | | | | upgrade existing operations and strengthen |
| Union standards for bottled water (CSE 2004). | | | | supply chain management (World Bank 2006b). |
| Shortly thereafter, Mathur et al. (2003) | | | | |
| tested 12 brands of soft drinks sold in Delhi | | | | This absence of pro-activity has meant that |
| for 16 organochlorine and 12 organophosphorus | | | | India has either had to adopt a "defensive" |
| pesticides and 4 synthetic pyrethroids | | | | strategy avoiding markets with more stringent |
| commonly used in agricultural fields and | | | | food safety and agricultural health standards |
| homes in India. Their analysis found that all | | | | or launch into a fire-fighting mode when it |
| brands exceeded the EU maximum pesticide | | | | faces potential disruption or loss of trade |
| residue limit of 0.0005 ppm (Figure 3). | | | | due to noncompliance with standards.17 The |
| | | | absence of pro-activity is well illustrated |
| To deal with the back-to-back crises, the GOI | | | | through examples of problems faced with |
| established a special Joint Parliamentary | | | | exports of fishery products in the late |
| Committee on "Pesticide Residues in and | | | | nineties and the more recent troubles with |
| Safety Standards for Soft Drinks, Fruit Juice | | | | grape exports to Europe. In both cases, |
| and Other Beverages" in August 2003 to | | | | although there were signs of potential |
| investigate the allegations. Two GOI | | | | problems for a considerable period of time, |
| Laboratories were instructed to conduct tests | | | | the food safety problems were not given |
| on the 12 brands (but using different | | | | serious attention until India was faced with |
| samples) and their findings showed that 9 of | | | | a crisis. |
| the 12 samples exceeded the EU limits (Hindu | | | | |
| Business Line 2003). | | | | In the case of exports of fish and fishery |
| | | | products, necessary monitoring and |
| Weak regulations and inadequate standards | | | | enforcement measures for ensuring that |
| were major causes of these high profile food | | | | exports complied with food safety concerns |
| safety crises. In the case of bottled water, | | | | were not put in place until the loss of EU |
| while the existing norm set out by the Bureau | | | | markets in 1997 (Henson, Saqib and Rajasena, |
| of Indian Standard (BIS) required that "no | | | | 2005). This was despite the fact that India |
| pesticides should be detectable," the | | | | had continually faced rejections because of |
| prescribed methodology could only detect | | | | failure to meet hygiene standards and other |
| pesticides at extremely high levels. | | | | food safety requirements since the 80s, and |
| Consequently, GOI issued a notification | | | | in spite of regulatory reforms to provide |
| revising the standards for pesticide residues | | | | safety assurance for fish and fishery |
| on bottled water, adopting the EU single | | | | products undertaken in 1995 (Henson, Saqib |
| residue limit of 0.0001 ppm and multiple | | | | and Rajasena, 2005). |
| residue limit of 0.0005 ppm (CSE 2004). In | | | | |
| the case of soft drinks, the BIS only had | | | | Similarly, in the case of grape exports to |
| voluntary standards, not mandatory standards | | | | the EU, pesticide residue problems |
| for pesticide residues. To address the | | | | hadsurfaced since the late nineties. During |
| problem, BIS constituted a 39 member | | | | this period, some limited testing was done |
| committee, consisting of representatives from | | | | for pesticide residues in export-oriented |
| the soft drinks industry, government | | | | grapes. Testing was made mandatory in 2000, |
| scientists, NGOs and consumer groups to | | | | but most of the available testing equipment |
| formulate the new BIS standards. The outcome | | | | was not up to date, could not test to the |
| was the Indian Ready to Serve Non-Alcoholic | | | | same level of detection as was common in |
| Beverages Specifications, which established | | | | Europe and was unable to detect certain |
| the limits for 16 pesticides in the finished | | | | heat-sensitive chemicals such as acephate and |
| product (0.0001 mg/l for individual | | | | methomyl (World Bank, 2006b).18 Only after EU |
| pesticides and total pesticide residue limit | | | | Rapid Alerts were issued in 2003 did the |
| of 0.0005 mg/l) (CSE 2004). | | | | Government and industry step into action to |
| | | | address the problem. In general India has not |
| Even the government-sponsored Mid-day Meals | | | | viewed complying with food safety and |
| program encountered serious food safety | | | | agricultural health standards as a means to |
| incidents. The National Program for | | | | both improve its competitive position and to |
| Nutritional Support to Primary Education | | | | enhance the effectiveness of its negotiations |
| (NPNSPE), more popularly known as the Mid-Day | | | | on particular technical and commercial |
| Meals Scheme, aims to improve child | | | | matters, which is in stark contrast to the |
| enrollment in primary school and encourage | | | | approach of leading agro-food exporting |
| regular attendance by providing supplementary | | | | countries (World Bank, 2006b). |
| feeding, while improving their nutritional | | | | |
| status. It covers children enrolled in | | | | A consequence of the lack of pro-activity and |
| classes I to IV in government and | | | | the crisis management mode of operation has |
| government-aided schools in the whole country | | | | been the adoption of very rigorous and strict |
| (Jha and Umali-Deininger 2003). In June 2006, | | | | controls for commodities threatened with the |
| 85 students from a Chennai primary school | | | | loss or disruption of trade. This has led to |
| were admitted to the hospital because of food | | | | extremely high costs of compliance in some |
| poisoning after consuming food prepared under | | | | cases (e.g. grapes) (World Bank, 2006b) or |
| mid-day meal scheme.4 In February 2004, 281 | | | | rather onerous requirements (e.g. |
| children attending municipal schools in Delhi | | | | requirements for processing facilities |
| fell ill and were admitted to the hospital | | | | exporting fishery products) (Henson, Saqib |
| after consuming their mid-day meal.5 There | | | | and Rajasena, 2005). In the case of grapes, |
| have been many other cases, despite quality | | | | the Government of India (GOI) Agricultural |
| norms being established for the mid-day meal | | | | and Processed Food Products Export |
| program. | | | | Development Authority (APEDA), formulated an |
| | | | integrated system of intensive grape supply |
| While issues related to pesticides in bottle | | | | chain oversight that included |
| water and carbonated drinks, and out-breaks | | | | |
| of food-borne illnesses received wide media | | | | • A requirement that all farms growing |
| attention, there are other serious domestic | | | | grapes for export to Europe have to register |
| food safety concerns that have been | | | | with the Department of Agriculture. About |
| identified including heavy metal | | | | 6200 growers registered for the 03/04 season; |
| contamination in foods. Marshall, et al. | | | | |
| (2003), tested fresh cauliflower, okra, and | | | | • Three field inspections (for |
| spinach - common vegetables in the Indian | | | | registered exporters) during the crop cycle |
| diet - in 5 production sites around the Delhi | | | | by a newly constituted cadre of horticultural |
| region and in Delhi's Azadpur wholesale | | | | field inspectors. Some 244 such officers were |
| market from May 2001 to June 2003. They found | | | | initially appointed and trained. There are |
| that 72% of the 222 spinach samples exceeded | | | | now 291 such officers; |
| the Indian MRLs for lead of 2.5 mg/kg, and | | | | |
| 100% exceeded the Codex MRL of 0.3 mg/kg. | | | | • The inspection and registration of |
| They attributed the high lead content to a | | | | all grape export packinghouses by APEDA. |
| number of possible causes, including | | | | |
| contamination of the irrigation water by | | | | • Mandatory pesticide residue testing |
| sewage and industrial effluent and industrial | | | | from each registered field of export grapes. |
| pollution.6 Contamination was exacerbated by | | | | Testingwould be done prior to harvest and |
| their locations-the production sites and | | | | only if the tests were passed would |
| market were in peri-urban and urban areas. | | | | authorization be given for harvesting for |
| When tested for zinc, 21% of samples exceeded | | | | export. Grapes from fields with failed |
| both the Indian and international standards. | | | | results would need to be sold in other |
| Currently, however, no regular testing for | | | | markets or re-tested. |
| heavy metals in vegetables is undertaken by | | | | |
| government agencies in India. Tests | | | | • Every consignment would be checked by |
| undertaken by the Indian Council for | | | | AGMARK to ensure conformity with EU quality |
| Agricultural Research found pesticide | | | | specifications for grapes. AGMARK would issue |
| residues above the MRL in 5.3% of 666 samples | | | | certificates. |
| of vegetables in 2003 and 15% of 468 samples | | | | |
| of milk tested in 2001 (Directorate of Plant | | | | • Obtaining a phytosanitary certificate |
| Protection and Quarantine 2006). | | | | issued by Plant Protection, Quarantine and |
| | | | Storage for every consignment; and |
| The long term use of pesticides in | | | | |
| agriculture and for disease control (e.g. DDT | | | | • Later, in 2005, another procedure was |
| for malaria control) is manifesting itself in | | | | added whereby National Research Center for |
| the blood, human milk and fatty tissue in the | | | | Grapes would take a 5% sample of ex-packhouse |
| population in many states. Table 1 presents | | | | grape consignments to re-test for pesticide |
| the results of micro-research studies in | | | | residues. |
| selected states in India from 1980 to 2005. | | | | |
| | | | The extensive system of checks and controls |
| Table 1: Level of DDT and HCH Content in | | | | primarily focused on end-of-the-pipeline |
| Human Blood Samples in Selected States in | | | | solutions. In addition to the protocols that |
| India. | | | | potential exporters to the EU have to follow, |
| | | | the government also invested heavily in |
| Location Year Number of Samples Total DDT | | | | upgrading laboratory testing equipment, |
| | | | training field inspectors, subsidizing |
| (ppm) Total HCH | | | | packhouse upgrades, and strengthening the |
| | | | National Research Centre for Grapes. Overall, |
| (ppm) | | | | it is estimated that the cost of this control |
| | | | system for pesticide residues (to government |
| Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh 1980 | | | | and the private sector) is about US$1.2 |
| | | | million, equivalent to 7.9% of the FOB value |
| 25 | | | | of India's grape trade to Europe in 2005 |
| | | | (Table 3). If all other costs associated with |
| 0.020 00.022 | | | | the oversight of the grape supply chain are |
| | | | added to the costs of pesticide residue |
| Delhi 1982 340 0.710 0.049 | | | | testing, SPS compliance costs are estimated |
| | | | to account for 13% of this FOB value. |
| Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh 1983 48 | | | | |
| | | | Table 3: Estimated Annual Cost of Meeting EU |
| 0.028 0.075 | | | | SPS Standards-2005 US $ |
| | | | |
| Delhi 1985 50 0.301 - | | | | While it is arguable that there are many |
| | | | spillovers and important lessons that have |
| Ahmedabad, Gujarat (rural) 1992 31 | | | | been learned from the handling of the |
| | | | pesticide residue problem with grape exports, |
| 0.048 0.148 | | | | and that these measures have been |
| | | | "successful" in that they have not resulted |
| Ahmedabad, Gujarat (urban) 1997 | | | | in further alerts or rejections, the heavy |
| | | | handed approach with which the problems were |
| 14 | | | | addressed, and the costs involved, clearly |
| | | | suggest that it is not a strategy that should |
| 0.032 0.039 | | | | be replicated. Although India has not faced |
| | | | further rejections of exports to the EU, |
| Punjab (rural) 2005 20 0.0652 0.057 | | | | routine laboratory testing still reveals |
| | | | violative residues, indicative of the |
| Note: HCH - Hexachlorocyclohexane | | | | continuing need to focus on improving overall |
| | | | agricultural practices to assure food safety. |
| Source: ICMR 2001, Mathur et al. 2005. | | | | |
| | | | Lack of good agricultural, manufacturing and |
| 6. Food Safety Concerns in Indian Exports | | | | hygiene practices. In addition to constraints |
| | | | that arise due to small farm sizes, the lack |
| Increased globalization and liberalization of | | | | of good agricultural, manufacturing and |
| markets, facilitated by the World Trade | | | | hygiene practices remain a major challenge |
| Organization (WTO), are opening new export | | | | for improving food safety both for the |
| markets for Indian agricultural products, | | | | domestic and export market. It is only |
| both fresh and processed. Indian agricultural | | | | recently that efforts are being made to |
| exports grew at an average annual rate of | | | | promote good practices. For example, Marine |
| 7.2% from 1990/91 to 2003/04. In response to | | | | Products Export Development Authority (MPEDA) |
| these new opportunities, India's agriculture | | | | promoted codes of good practice, particularly |
| exports diversified from traditional exports | | | | with regards to addressing antibiotic use. To |
| of tea, spices, and coffee to include | | | | this extent the organization was involved in |
| horticultural, fish and livestock products. | | | | monitoring antibiotic usage levels, providing |
| Between the triennium ending (TE) 1991/92 and | | | | training and disseminating information |
| TE 2003/04, the value of fresh and processed | | | | (Henson, Saqib and Rajasena, 2005). In the |
| fruit and vegetable exports rose from US$84 | | | | spices sector, the Spices Board (SB) |
| million to US$394 million in real terms (1993 | | | | undertook measures to address problems with |
| 94 dollars) while marine product exports rose | | | | regards to pesticide residues and aflatoxin. |
| from US$516 million to US$1.5 billion during | | | | The SB, in conjunction with State Departments |
| the same period (Figure 4). | | | | of Agriculture and various NGOs, supported |
| | | | measures to promote integrated pest |
| As Indian agricultural exports diversified, | | | | management (IPM) and the production of |
| and the value of exports to high income | | | | organic spices (Jaffee, 2005). They helped |
| countries increased, India has had to | | | | address the aflatoxin concern by promoting |
| confront new food safety challenges. Concerns | | | | better drying practices. The Ministry of Food |
| over numerous rejections of Indian agro-food | | | | Processing Industries and APEDA have both |
| exports on food safety grounds have spilled | | | | been promoting adoption of HACCP and ISO |
| overdomestically, generating greater domestic | | | | certification among processed food |
| attention to pervasive food safety problems | | | | manufacturers through a range of training |
| in the supply chain including high levels of | | | | initiatives and private sector investment |
| pesticide residues, presence of heavy metals | | | | grant for upgrading processing plants to |
| in food, and micro-biological contamination. | | | | obtain HACCP/ISO certification. |
| The following section describes recent food | | | | |
| safety challenges in Indian horticultural, | | | | However, the adoption of good practices |
| spice and fisheries exports. | | | | remains limited. Much remains to be done in |
| | | | improving practices with regards to the |
| Figure 4: Trend in Agricultural Exports, | | | | manufacture and use of pesticides and |
| Triennium Ending (TE) 1990/91 to TE 2003/04 | | | | improving post harvest techniques. Although |
| | | | there have been some limited spillovers from |
| Horticultural Exports. In 2004, India | | | | the export sector into the domestic market, |
| exported US$575 million of fresh and | | | | in terms of improving production practices, |
| processed fruits, vegetables and flowers. | | | | for most commodities, including spices and |
| Traditionally India's fresh fruit and | | | | fresh fruit and vegetables, farmers do not |
| vegetables exports were targeted to markets | | | | necessarily see any advantages or necessity |
| in neighboring South Asian countries, to the | | | | for altering their production practices since |
| Middle East and to East Asia. Since the early | | | | the vast majority of production is consumed |
| 1990s India achieved some success in | | | | in the domestic market. Until domestic |
| exporting fresh horticultural produce to | | | | consumer awareness and willingness to pay for |
| Western Europe. India has been quite proud of | | | | improved food safety becomes more widespread, |
| its penetration into the U.K, Netherlands and | | | | it is unlikely that addressing food safety |
| German fresh grape markets. Grapes are a | | | | concerns will become standard practice |
| highly seasonal crop and Indian exporters | | | | nationally. Similarly, significant measures |
| have been targeting a crucial March to April | | | | are needed to improve the safety of processed |
| window in the European market, which falls at | | | | foods. In the food processing sector there |
| the end of the main southern hemisphere | | | | are a growing number of firms with modern |
| production season (in South Africa and Chile) | | | | factories and good quality assurance systems, |
| and before Egypt and Turkey enter the market. | | | | but this segment co-exists with large numbers |
| Virtually all of India's grape exports are of | | | | of small and older firms that would need to |
| the Thompson Seedless variety. | | | | make significant upgrades to implement HACCP |
| | | | and other quality assurance systems.19 |
| The Indian grape export crisis in May 2003 | | | | |
| was a pivotal wake-up call to Indian | | | | In the short term, developments in the food |
| exporters concerning the costs of failing to | | | | retail sector in India are likely to bring |
| meet food safety standards. In the midst of a | | | | about improvements in food safety. |
| commercial dispute with an Indian grape | | | | International experience shows that |
| exporter, a Dutch importer had samples of the | | | | modernization of the food retail sector is an |
| Indian grapes tested by a private laboratory. | | | | important driver for change not only in the |
| On finding that the grapes contained residues | | | | structure of production and wholesale |
| of the insecticide methomyl in excess of the | | | | marketing of produce, but also in fostering |
| EU maximum residue limit (0.05 microgram | | | | adoption of improved grades and food safety |
| kg.), the importer placed an advertisement in | | | | standards (Berdegué et al 2003, Reardon |
| the local paper warning that grapes from this | | | | and Timmer 2005a, 2005b). |
| Indian supplier contained "poison" (World | | | | |