| Md. Wasim Aktar*
| |
| | use of prohibited food colorants. In the
|
| Pesticide Residue Laboratory, Department
| |
| | mid-nineties, Indian dry chili exports
|
| of Agricultural Chemicals,
| |
| | faced several rejections including
|
| Bidhan Chandra Krishi
| |
| | rejections in Spain due to pesticide
|
| Viswavidyalaya, Mohanpur-741252, Nadia,
| |
| | residue in excess of permissible MRLs,
|
| West Bengal, India
| |
| | and in the United States because residues
|
| 1. Introduction
| |
| | of quinalphos, a pesticide not registered
|
| Rising incomes and urbanization, an
| |
| | in the United States (Jaffee, 2005).
|
| expanding domestic consumer base
| |
| | Between 1998 and 2000, Indian dry chili
|
| concerned about food quality and safety,
| |
| | exports also faced rejection in Germany,
|
| and rapidly growing agricultural exports
| |
| | Italy, Spain and the U.K. due to the
|
| have been important drivers for the
| |
| | presence of aflatoxin.8 More recently,
|
| increased attention to food safety in
| |
| | exports of chili and curry powder faced
|
| India. But the development of effective
| |
| | problems due to the use of the prohibited
|
| food safety systems is hampered by a
| |
| | red dye Sudan 1 (Jaffee, 2005). In
|
| number of factors, including: restrictive
| |
| | February 2005, a massive recall of some
|
| government marketing regulations, weak
| |
| | 600 food products took place in the UK
|
| policy and regulatory framework for food
| |
| | because of the detection of Sudan 1 in
|
| safety, inadequate enforcement of
| |
| | Worcester sauce. This was the largest
|
| existing standards, a multiplicity of
| |
| | ever food recall in the U.K. and it
|
| government agencies involved, weak market
| |
| | affected all major retailers as well as
|
| infrastructure and agricultural support
| |
| | large numbers of food manufacturers and
|
| services. The small farm structure
| |
| | food service companies, as the Worcester
|
| further limits farmer capacity to meet
| |
| | Sauces had been used in the preparation
|
| increasing domestic and export food
| |
| | of a large number of different products.
|
| safety and SPS requirements. Addressing
| |
| | It is estimated that this recall, and
|
| food safety concerns in India will
| |
| | associated expenses, cost the U.K. and
|
| require adoption of appropriate
| |
| | other European food manufacturers some
|
| legislation, strengthening capacity to
| |
| | 200 million Euros (Jaffee, 2005). The
|
| enforce rules, promoting adoption of good
| |
| | source of the Sudan 1 dye in the
|
| agricultural, manufacturing and hygiene
| |
| | Worcester sauce was traced to chili
|
| practices, greater collective action, and
| |
| | powder imported from India in 2002.
|
| some targeted investments. Implementing
| |
| | Fish and Fish Product Exports. Fish and
|
| these actions will require joint efforts
| |
| | fish products are one of India's
|
| by the government and the private sector.
| |
| | largestagricultural export earners,
|
| Developing countries are paying increased
| |
| | totaling US$1.3 billion in 2004/05. Over
|
| attention to food safety, because of
| |
| | the years, India hasencountered several
|
| growing recognition of its potential
| |
| | food safety problems with its fish and
|
| impact on public health, food security,
| |
| | fish product exports. Most prominent, in
|
| and trade competitiveness. Increasing
| |
| | 1997, the European Commission found the
|
| scientific understanding of the public
| |
| | industry to be non-compliant in
|
| health consequences of unsafe food,
| |
| | maintaining hygiene standards in fish
|
| amplified by the rapid global
| |
| | processing plants. In May 1997 the
|
| transmission of information regarding the
| |
| | European Commission banned Indian exports
|
| public health threats associated with
| |
| | of fresh crustaceans and cephalopods and
|
| food-borne and zoonotic diseases (e.g. E.
| |
| | imposed border testing for Salmonella and
|
| coli and salmonella, bovine-spongiform
| |
| | Vibrio spp. for frozen products (Henson,
|
| encephalopathy (BSE), severe acute
| |
| | Saqib and Rajasena, 2005). Because of
|
| respiratory syndrome (SARs) and H5N1
| |
| | continued detection of salmonella, all
|
| avian flu) through various forms of media
| |
| | exports of fish and fishery products to
|
| and the internet has heightened consumer
| |
| | the EU from India were banned in 1997.
|
| awareness about food safety risks to new
| |
| | While India has for the most part been
|
| levels globally (Lindsay 1997, Unnevehr
| |
| | able to address the hygiene-related
|
| 2003, Buzby and Unnevehr 2003,
| |
| | problems plaguing its export of fishery
|
| Kafersteing 2003, Ewen et al. 2006,
| |
| | products in the late nineties, Indian
|
| Bramhmbatt 2005). Increased understanding
| |
| | exports are now under scrutiny because of
|
| of the impact of mycotoxins, which can
| |
| | problems related to antibiotic residues
|
| contaminate dietary staples such wheat,
| |
| | and bacterial inhibitors (antibiotics,
|
| maize, barley and peanuts, has further
| |
| | preservatives and chlorine) (Henson,
|
| raised food security and public health
| |
| | Saqib and Rajasena, 2005). It is widely
|
| concerns in many developing countries
| |
| | acknowledged that in the future, heavy
|
| (Dohlman 2003, Bhat and Vasanthi 2003,
| |
| | metals and other contaminants could be an
|
| Unnevehr 2003).
| |
| | emerging issue particularly because of
|
| As developing countries seek to expand
| |
| | the increased attention to heavy metals
|
| agricultural exports especially to
| |
| | in the EU. Surveillance of fisheries
|
| OECDcountries, many are receiving a
| |
| | products for heavy metals has already
|
| wake-up call on the challenges of meeting
| |
| | begun in the U.K.
|
| both government and private sanitary and
| |
| | Although India has been able to broadly
|
| phyto-sanitary (SPS) standards in export
| |
| | comply with food safety requirements for
|
| markets (Otsuki et al. 2001, Henson 2003,
| |
| | each of the export commodities mentioned
|
| Unnevehr 2003, World Bank 2005a). Private
| |
| | above, it continues to face problems
|
| standards or supplier protocols have
| |
| | across a range of agro-food exports.
|
| grown in prominence over the past decade
| |
| | Evidence of continuing trouble is clearly
|
| as a means to further ensure compliance
| |
| | apparent from Import Refusal Reports
|
| with official regulations, to fill
| |
| | issued each month by the USFDA for food
|
| perceived gaps in such regulations, and
| |
| | and drug imports into the United States.
|
| or to facilitate the differentiation of
| |
| | Most recently, in both April and May
|
| company or industry products from those
| |
| | 2006, India had one of the highest
|
| of competitors. Trends in private
| |
| | rejections among all countries exporting
|
| standards increasingly tend to blend food
| |
| | to the USA; India faced 176 rejections in
|
| safety and quality management concerns
| |
| | May, 2006 and 211 rejections in April,
|
| (i.e. the recent creation of ISO 22000),
| |
| | 2006.9 While a significant number of the
|
| or to have protocols which combine food
| |
| | 176 rejections were issued for drugs and
|
| safety, environmental, and social (child
| |
| | cosmetics, the grounds for rejection
|
| labor, labor conditions, animal welfare)
| |
| | among the various food items included
|
| parameters (Willems et al. 2005, World
| |
| | salmonella and/or filth in raw peeled
|
| Bank 2005). At the same time, increasing
| |
| | shrimp, prepared Indian breads (paratha,
|
| globalization of trade introduces greater
| |
| | roti), basmati rice, sesame seeds,
|
| risks of cross-border transfer
| |
| | pepper, coriander and chili powder;
|
| offood-borne illnesses. Recent cases of
| |
| | pesticide residues in lentils; failure to
|
| disease episodes in the United States
| |
| | declare the color additive FD & C Yellow
|
| resulting fromimported food produce, such
| |
| | No. 5 in banana chips; and unsafe
|
| as cyclospora from raspberries, hepatitis
| |
| | coloring in cream biscuits. The number of
|
| A from strawberries and salmonella from
| |
| | rejections and the range of problems
|
| cantaloupe (Calvin 2003), illustrate to
| |
| | reveal extensive safety problems in
|
| developing countries the potential food
| |
| | Indian food products. It is also
|
| safety challenges that can arise in a
| |
| | reasonable to assume that the extent of
|
| more globalized market.
| |
| | the problems faced by domestic consumers
|
| Weaknesses in food safety systems can
| |
| | is far more serious as there many more
|
| have a high cost to society and the
| |
| | micro, small and medium enterprises that
|
| global economy. The World Health
| |
| | cater to domestic consumers and generally
|
| Organization (WHO) estimates that 2.2
| |
| | pay less attention to food safety issues.
|
| million people worldwide die from
| |
| | By contrast, exporters are likely to be
|
| diarrheal diseases caused by a host of
| |
| | more well-established and larger firms
|
| bacterial, viral and parasitic organisms,
| |
| | with better technology and relatively
|
| which are spread by contaminated water
| |
| | more cognizant about food safety
|
| (WHO 2006a). In India, it is estimated
| |
| | concerns.
|
| that 20% of deaths among children under
| |
| | 7. Challenges to Improve Food Safety in
|
| five are caused by diarrheal disease (WHO
| |
| | India
|
| 2006b). The SARs outbreak in 2003 in East
| |
| | Improving food safety in India, whether
|
| Asia is estimated to have caused an
| |
| | for the domestic market or for export
|
| immediate economic loss of about 2% of
| |
| | trade, is hampered by a number of
|
| the Region's GDP in the second quarter of
| |
| | structural, policy, institutional,
|
| that year, even though only 800 people
| |
| | technical and cultural barriers.
|
| died from the disease (Brahmbatt 2005).1
| |
| | Policy and Regulatory Environment. A
|
| The Lowy Institute for International
| |
| | number of policies and regulations
|
| Policy (2006) estimates that a mild
| |
| | governing agricultural marketing and food
|
| global outbreak of the avian flu can cost
| |
| | processing complicate the implementation
|
| the world 1.4 million lives and close to
| |
| | of food safety measures by the government
|
| 0.8% of GDP (US$330 billion) in lost
| |
| | and by the private sector. Two critical
|
| economic output. At the same time,
| |
| | marketing regulations are the State level
|
| country reactions to protect its citizens
| |
| | Agricultural Produce Marketing
|
| from food safety risks can also have
| |
| | (Development and Regulation) Acts and the
|
| large consequences for exporting
| |
| | Small Scale Industry Reservation Policy.
|
| countries. Otsuki et al (2001) examined
| |
| | Almost all states in India have an
|
| the projected impact of the EU's new
| |
| | Agricultural Produce Marketing (APM) Act,
|
| harmonized aflatoxin standard on the
| |
| | which gives state governments the sole
|
| value of trade flows to 15 European
| |
| | authority to establish and manage
|
| countries from 9 African countries and
| |
| | wholesale markets.10 The Act, adopted by
|
| found that it could decrease African
| |
| | most states in the 1960s and 1970s,
|
| exports by 64% (US$670 million).
| |
| | prescribes the setting up of a network of
|
| Food safety concerns are getting
| |
| | state controlled "regulated markets" or
|
| widespread attention in India. The
| |
| | mandis and the establishment of Market
|
| country's rural development strategy, for
| |
| | Committees to operate each. All
|
| which a key element is the promotion of
| |
| | "notified" agricultural commodities grown
|
| increased agricultural exports as a means
| |
| | in areas surrounding the market are
|
| to foster rural growth and poverty
| |
| | required by law to be sold only through
|
| reduction, is coming up against
| |
| | these markets, with the number of
|
| tightening food safety and SPS standards
| |
| | notified commodities varying by state and
|
| in prospective markets (World Bank 2006a,
| |
| | market. Implementation of the Act and its
|
| 2006b). From a domestic perspective, the
| |
| | enforcement vary considerably by state.
|
| large national market of 1.2 billion
| |
| | In 2005, there were nearly 8,000
|
| people is undergoing rapid change.
| |
| | regulated markets in the whole country.11
|
| Increasing incomes, a growing middle
| |
| | The requirement that all agricultural
|
| class, increased urbanization and
| |
| | commodities be channeled through the
|
| literacy, and a population highly tuned
| |
| | regulated markets not only increases
|
| to international trends fueled by the
| |
| | transactions costs, but is also a major
|
| information technology boom are creating
| |
| | obstacle to preserving produce quality
|
| a large consumer base giving increasing
| |
| | and traceability. In 2003, the GOI
|
| value to food quality and safety.
| |
| | formulated a model Agricultural Produce
|
| Improving food safety systems, to meet
| |
| | Market Act for state governments to
|
| domestic and export requirements,
| |
| | adopt, which removes the restrictions on
|
| however, face a number of policy,
| |
| | farmer direct sales and permits entities
|
| regulatory, infrastructural and
| |
| | outside of government to establish and
|
| institutional obstacles.
| |
| | operate wholesale markets. To date only
|
| 2. OBJECTIVES
| |
| | 10 of the 28 states and Union Territories
|
| (i) To review the main drivers for the
| |
| | have adopted the model Act.12
|
| increased priority to addressing food
| |
| | The Small Scale Industry (SSI)
|
| safety risks in India in both the export
| |
| | Reservation restricts the processing of
|
| and domestic markets, (ii)To examine the
| |
| | certain commodities to the small scale
|
| nature and effectiveness of government
| |
| | sector. Although the list of commodities
|
| and private responses to the food safety
| |
| | subject to this restriction has been
|
| challenges, with special focus on high
| |
| | reduced significantly during the last
|
| value agriculture; (iii)To identify the
| |
| | decade, several processed agricultural
|
| constraints to more effective responses;
| |
| | products are still subject to SSI
|
| (iv) To examine the implications for
| |
| | reservation, such as rapeseed, mustard
|
| policy; v) To review food safety with
| |
| | and ground nut oil,13 bread, pastry,
|
| special relation to Pesticides; and vi)
| |
| | pickles and chutneys, and hard boiled
|
| To discuss briefly about the food safety
| |
| | sugar candy (Department of Small Scale
|
| from consumer point of view.
| |
| | Industries 2006). The SSI reservation
|
| 3. Types of Food Safety Risks
| |
| | imposes constraints on enterprises'
|
| Food safety risks, as they relate to
| |
| | ability to undertake the necessary
|
| human health, arise from of a number of
| |
| | investments (e.g. HACCP) and
|
| factors. These include: (i) microbial
| |
| | certifications required to meet the
|
| pathogens (bacteria, viruses, parasites,
| |
| | domestic and international food safety
|
| fungi and their toxins); (ii) pesticide
| |
| | and SPS requirements.14
|
| residues, food additives, livestock drugs
| |
| | There is a complex web of laws governing
|
| and growth hormones; (iii) environmental
| |
| | the processed food sector which
|
| toxins such as heavy metals (e.g. lead
| |
| | complicate implementation of food safety
|
| and mercury); (iv) persistent organic
| |
| | measures. These laws are enforced by 8
|
| pollutants (e.g. dioxins); and (v)
| |
| | different ministries. Some of the most
|
| zoonotic diseases (e.g.Avian flu,
| |
| | critical are: Prevention of Food
|
| Japanese encephalitis, tuberculosis)
| |
| | Adulteration Act 1954 implemented by the
|
| (Buzby and Unnevehr 2003, Ewen et al.
| |
| | Ministry of Health and Family Welfare;
|
| 2004).2 The health risks associated with
| |
| | Milk and Milk Products Order 1992 and
|
| these agents impact the whole food supply
| |
| | Agricultural Produce Grading and Marking
|
| chain, starting from input supply to the
| |
| | Act 1937 implemented by the Ministry of
|
| farm to the consumer table (Figure 1).
| |
| | Agriculture; the Essential Commodities
|
| Figure 1 Food Supply Chain: Potential
| |
| | Act 1955, Standards of Weights and
|
| Sources of Food Safety Hazards
| |
| | Measures Act 1976, Consumer Protection
|
| Common use of pesticides in modern
| |
| | Act 1986, and Bureau of Indian Standards
|
| farming inevitably leaves some residues
| |
| | Act 1986 implemented by the Ministry of
|
| on food crops.
| |
| | Food, Consumer Affairs and Public
|
| Potential food safety hazards at HOME can
| |
| | Distribution; the Fruit Products Order
|
| be divided into three categories:
| |
| | 1955 implemented by the Ministry of Food
|
| 1. Biological
| |
| | Processing Industries; import and export
|
| 2. Chemical
| |
| | regulations implemented by the Ministry
|
| 3. Physical
| |
| | of Commerce; Trade in Endangered Species
|
| While all the above type of hazards are
| |
| | Act implemented by the Ministry of Forest
|
| important from viewpoint of prevention,
| |
| | and Environment; Atomic Energy Act 1962
|
| the focus here will be on the
| |
| | Control of Irradiation of Food Rule 1991
|
| microbiological hazards and in that on
| |
| | implemented by the Ministry of Science
|
| foodborne bacteria, which can lead to
| |
| | and Technology; and Infant Milk
|
| illness if the food is mishandled,
| |
| | Substitutes, Feed Bottles and Infant
|
| particularly for those more at risk --
| |
| | Foods (Regulation of Production, Supply
|
| the very young, the elderly and the
| |
| | and Distribution) Act 1992 implemented by
|
| immuno-compromised.
| |
| | the Ministry of Human Resource
|
| Certain processes or handling practices
| |
| | Development (Patnaik 2005).
|
| by consumers in the home have been
| |
| | These laws also authorize several
|
| identified as being essential or critical
| |
| | agencies to lay down standards for food
|
| in preventing foodborne illness. These
| |
| | products: (i) Bureau of Indian Standards
|
| practices, which prevent or control the
| |
| | (BIS) of the Ministry of Food, Consumer
|
| "meals" microbial contamination
| |
| | Affairs and Public distribution under the
|
| associated with foodborne illness, are
| |
| | BIS Act, (ii) Ministry of Food Processing
|
| under the direct control of the consumer,
| |
| | Industry under the Fruit Products Order,
|
| from food acquisition through disposal.
| |
| | (iii) Ministry of Agriculture under "Ag
|
| They are purchasing, storing,
| |
| | Mark" and the FPO, (iv) Ministry of
|
| pre-preparation, cooking, serving, and
| |
| | Health and Family Welfare (MOHFW) under
|
| handling leftovers. Failure to take
| |
| | the PFA Act; (v) Export Inspection
|
| appropriate action at these critical
| |
| | Council under the Export-Import Policy,
|
| points could result in foodborne illness.
| |
| | and (vi) the Defense Ministry for their
|
| 4. Pesticides and Food Safety
| |
| | own purchases.
|
| Fruits, vegetables and cereal crops
| |
| | These laws and associated regulations in
|
| treated with pesticides are perceived by
| |
| | some cases prescribe contradictory or
|
| some as a health risk, and this belief
| |
| | differing standards. For example, while
|
| along with affordability, and time
| |
| | the Fruit Products Order (FPO) allows the
|
| pressures may all play a role in limiting
| |
| | use of artificial sweeteners in fruit
|
| consumption of plant foods, such as
| |
| | products, the Prevention of Food
|
| cereal grains, fruit and vegetable
| |
| | Adulteration (PFA) Act bans it. Mandatory
|
| consumption of consumers in Asia. The
| |
| | declaration labels required by the PFA
|
| World Health Organisation (WHO), the
| |
| | differ from those of the Packaged
|
| World Cancer Research Fund (WCRF) and
| |
| | Commodity Regulation Rules (1977) under
|
| many other national and
| |
| | the Standard Weights and Measures Act.
|
| inter-governmental agencies recommend
| |
| | The emulsifier and stabilizers permitted
|
| that adults consume at least 400g of
| |
| | for use in jams and chutneys under the
|
| fruit and vegetables per day and 25-30
| |
| | PFA differ from those allowed under the
|
| grammes of dietary fibre per day, but
| |
| | FPO.
|
| analysis of current dietary patterns
| |
| | In 1998, the GOI began the process of
|
| around the world indicate that many
| |
| | rationalizing the legal and regulatory
|
| consumer are not achieving these dietary
| |
| | framework for food and food processing.
|
| goals, particularly those who are less
| |
| | The Prime Minister's Council on Trade and
|
| affluent. AFIC's Short Briefing on
| |
| | Industry established a Task Force on Food
|
| Pesticides, Food Safety and Health is
| |
| | and Agro-Industries Management Policy to
|
| intended to provide a science-based
| |
| | recommend options for rationalizing the
|
| factual overview of the issue, to enable
| |
| | various policies and regulations. The
|
| consumers to make better informed choice
| |
| | outcome was a new Food Safety and
|
| about their diet, in particular fruit,
| |
| | Standards Bill, which was submitted to
|
| vegetables and grains consumption, and
| |
| | Parliament in August 2005 and is awaiting
|
| allay unwarranted anxieties and concerns.
| |
| | approval. The Bill aims to consolidate
|
| Definition of Pesticide: The Food and
| |
| | the laws relating to food. The key
|
| Agriculture Organisation (FAO) defines a
| |
| | provisions of Bill include: (i) the
|
| pesticide as 'any substance or mixture of
| |
| | repeal of a number of Acts and Orders;15
|
| substances intended for preventing,
| |
| | (ii) the establishment of a Food Safety
|
| destroying, attracting, repelling, or
| |
| | and Standards Authority of India; (iii)
|
| controlling any pest including unwanted
| |
| | definition of the standards for food
|
| species of plants or animals during the
| |
| | additives, contaminants, genetically
|
| production, storage, transport,
| |
| | modified and organic foods, packaging and
|
| distribution, and processing of food,
| |
| | labeling, and food imports; (iii)
|
| agricultural commodities, or animal feeds
| |
| | accreditation of laboratories, research
|
| or which may be administered to animals
| |
| | institutions and food safety auditors;
|
| for the control of ectoparasites'
| |
| | (iv) licensing and registration of food
|
| Natural Toxins: Substances that are
| |
| | business and setting penalties for
|
| capable of causing cancer are virtually
| |
| | offenses; and (v) establishment of a Food
|
| everywhere, even in natural compounds.
| |
| | Safety Adjudication Tribunal (Ministry of
|
| The FDA estimates that the intake of
| |
| | Food Processing Industries 2005).
|
| carcinogens from man-made pesticide
| |
| | Approval of the Bill will be an important
|
| residues is extremely small compared to
| |
| | milestone in strengthening food safety
|
| carcinogenic residues that plants produce
| |
| | systems in India.
|
| naturally.
| |
| | There are a large number of government
|
| According to Bruce Ames, a professor of
| |
| | agencies involved in agricultural
|
| molecular biology and biochemistry at the
| |
| | marketing activities, more broadly or
|
| University of California, more than 99.99
| |
| | with respect to specific commodities,
|
| percent of the pesticides Americans
| |
| | which complicates effective
|
| ingest are "nature's pesticides" or
| |
| | implementation of a coherent food safety
|
| "natural toxins" (Hotchkiss, 1992; Moore,
| |
| | strategy for the country. As in the case
|
| 1989).
| |
| | of the soft drink contamination, the
|
| Natural toxins are present in all plants
| |
| | multiple laws and agencies added to the
|
| and such food products as beans, lettuce,
| |
| | confusion. The BIS was charged with
|
| apple juice, wine, black pepper, spinach,
| |
| | setting the standards for pesticides in
|
| peanut butter and many others. Of the
| |
| | soft drinks, while the MOHFW is charged
|
| known natural toxins, which concentrate
| |
| | with setting the pesticide standards for
|
| in parts per thousand versus parts per
| |
| | bottled water.
|
| billion in synthetic pesticides, none has
| |
| | Smallholder Agriculture. The current
|
| been shown to cause cancer (Hotchkiss,
| |
| | structure of the farm sector in India
|
| 1992; Moore, 1989).
| |
| | constrains farmer capacity to meet
|
| Reasons of pesticide residues in food
| |
| | domestic and international food safety
|
| Pesticide residues may be present in food
| |
| | standards. Farming in India is dominated
|
| because of the following reasons:
| |
| | by small farmers - the average farm size
|
| 1) Direct use of pesticides on food
| |
| | in 1990/00 was 1.8 ha (NABARD 2002). Most
|
| crops;
| |
| | farmers face credit constraints (World
|
| 2) Animal feeding on pesticide treated
| |
| | Bank 2004), and literacy rates are low.16
|
| feed;
| |
| | These constraints impose limits on the
|
| 3) Environmental contamination
| |
| | number of farmers capable to adopt more
|
| Pesticide Use on the Farm: Many of
| |
| | sophisticated farm practices and
|
| today's food producers are taking an
| |
| | undertake the necessary investments (e.g.
|
| Integrated Pest Management (IPM) approach
| |
| | land improvements, obtaining necessary
|
| to preventing, reducing or eliminating
| |
| | certifications, cold storage) to meet
|
| pest problems. Growers and processors
| |
| | more stringent food quality and safety
|
| must make complicated decisions prior to
| |
| | requirements. They increase the cost of
|
| planting, during the growing season, and
| |
| | transacting business and monitoring
|
| during postharvest handling. Scientific
| |
| | compliance with food safety standards.
|
| IPM strategies give the grower economic
| |
| | Stringent land policies, e.g. land
|
| incentives for sustaining long-term crop
| |
| | ceilings and restrictions on land rental,
|
| protection with minimal disruption to the
| |
| | limit possibilities for greater land
|
| environment. The agricultural community
| |
| | amalgamation (World Bank 2006c).
|
| typically will use pesticides judiciously
| |
| | International experience indicates,
|
| as part of the IPM strategy whenever
| |
| | however, that farm size constraints may
|
| proven alternatives are not available for
| |
| | be overcome through innovative
|
| pest control. Growers are hiring
| |
| | interventions such as organizing farmers
|
| professional crop consultants with
| |
| | into producer groups, establishing
|
| increasing frequency for advice on
| |
| | collection centers (by supermarkets and
|
| maintaining or increasing production
| |
| | exporters), using contract farming
|
| through the utilization of IPM programs
| |
| | arrangements, and by creating
|
| structured toward their specific
| |
| | public-private partnerships to assist
|
| agronomic situations.
| |
| | farmers in a variety of ways, including
|
| Integrated pest management: It is an
| |
| | help in obtaining the capital required to
|
| ecological approach to pest management in
| |
| | make on-farm improvements and other
|
| which all available control techniques
| |
| | investments (e.g. grading or cooling
|
| are consolidated into a unified program
| |
| | facilities), developing and improving
|
| so that pest populations can be managed
| |
| | farming skills through joint extension
|
| in such a manner that economic damage is
| |
| | provision, and assistance in acquiring
|
| avoided and adverse side effects are
| |
| | the required national and international
|
| minimized. Practices used as a part of
| |
| | certifications (Berdegué et al. 2003,
|
| this management philosophy include the
| |
| | Boselie et al. 2003, Dries et al 2004,
|
| following: 1) destruction of crop debris,
| |
| | Reardon and Swinnen 2004, Reardon and
|
| 2) having pests feed and concentrate on
| |
| | Timmer 2005a, 2005b).
|
| trap crops, 3) crop rotation, 4)
| |
| | In order to address various food safety
|
| selectivity of planting and harvest
| |
| | concerns in both the spices and fresh and
|
| dates, 5) soil test analysis for crop
| |
| | processed fruit and vegetable sectors,
|
| nutrient needs, 6) planting crop species
| |
| | some exporters initiated contract farming
|
| adapted for local conditions, 7) using
| |
| | operations or "vendor screening"
|
| genetically improved crop varieties with
| |
| | programs. One industry that has been
|
| resistance to specific pests, 8) using
| |
| | especially successful in establishing
|
| biological control, 9) predicting pest
| |
| | contract farming arrangements and meeting
|
| outbreaks with computers, 10) pheromones
| |
| | stringent food safety and quality
|
| for trapping pests, 11) scouting and
| |
| | standards is the pickled gherkin
|
| monitoring for pests, 12) economic
| |
| | industry. The industry, consisting of
|
| thresholds as guides to pest control, 13)
| |
| | some 42 companies and nearly 50,000
|
| better timing |
